History and Tv in Poland

by Urszula Jarecka

The evolution of Polish television

The following analysis is focused on the main aspects of the evolution of the media scene in Poland, although some political issues should be developed thoroughly.

The beginning of television in Poland

During the 30. The National Institute of Telecommunication worked intensively on the new discovery of televising technology. In November 1936 the first experimental television station was launched at Warsaw, thus the possibility of reaching the signal for the Warsaw neighborhood (about 30 km) was created. All equipment at the station was produced in Poland, but, unfortunately, the World War II interrupted the development of any ambitious technological projects for years. The Institute continued experiments in late 40., and the first public presentation of television took place in Warsaw, December 15^th 1951, during an exhibition “Radio for the battle of peace and progress”.

Officially, the birth of television in Poland is dated on 25^th October, 1952 when the first television program was introduced to the viewers by Maria Krzyżanowska, a pioneer presenter¹. The first television show, similarly to the beginnings of television all over the world, was consisted of some songs, small talks, and dance etude. The show was seen by workers from Warsaw factories gathered around 24 television sets “Leningrad”, produced in the USSR. After the successful experimental presentation of the program, the Polish Radio Committee decided to constitute a special team for developing the television program. Regular telecast started in 1953, the half-hour programming usually was broadcast on Fridays. Some topics of these shows served the legitimization of a new political system by popularizing celebrations of the holidays such as 1^st May or the “International Day Against Colonial Oppression” etc. and a new type of heroes such as Josef Stalin or the youth from communist organizations.

The audience, according to official data and private memoirs as well, was fascinated by the new medium despite all the shortcomings of transmission and the price of television set. Systematically the presentations of a fresh technological phenomenon had been stretched out and more frequent: in 1955 the programming was usually broadcast 3 times a week.

Since January 1^st 1957 the registration of TV sets is obligatory for all citizens, and the registers became the sources of interesting data. In 1958 there were registered 90,000 TV sets in Poland, so, according to official statistics it gave about 360,000 viewers. Estimated audience covered only 1% of population. In 1967 the number of registered TV sets rose above 3,000,000, hence it was estimated that the television programming had been seen by circa 1/3 of population of the country (it means more than 10,000,000 people). In 1968 statistics registered 3,000,000 TV sets in use, 18, 000, 000 people constituted the audience (6 person for 1 TV set), and “relatively regular”² viewers were calculated for about 9,000,000

(3 persons for 1 TV set). Two years later – in 1970 – the estimation is completely different: the number of TV sets (4,300,000) was multiplied by 5 viewers, so “television made happy 21,500,000 people. In 33 million nation it means total range of this mass medium. Practically the number of viewers is probably smaller”. However, there is one major problem with these data: all statistics from the communist period are not reliable, great number of research was prepared for the propaganda purposes. Official data covering the social stratification of the audience were also gathered rather carelessly, and the rules of estimation and interpretation of the results are basically unknown. Two last examples show that this kind of data provided more confusion than information.

Popularization of new medium in the 50.

Popularization of television in Poland started for good in the middle of 50. During this decade, from the perspective of communist power, journalists were still seen as the activists of „ideological battleground” – but there was one exception – the group of television journalists. During this pioneer period of television development the medium seemed to have mostly artistic and informative character. Moreover, due to technological and financial reasons television was a medium of a limited broadcast coverage and at the same time – of minimal social influence. For about 10 years television was not in the spotlight of the Party³ interest (it was not important in main lines of policy). The role of television was seen then in categories of cultural, artistic and educational influence till the beginning of the 60. Anyway, the power of television as a tool of propaganda had not been yet discovered in Poland.

The role of the television in viewers’ lives was examined by a poll carried out in 1958 during the International Fair in Poznań. Surprisingly, the most popular category of answers were analogous to the critics’ opinions: the audience considered the popularization of Polish culture to be the most important role of television. The next group of answers could be named as “the death of the province”: viewers stressed that even in the smallest village television offers possibility to “see the world”. The third category of answers was concerned with social issues: the viewers claimed that due to television the family life “became enriched”, and television was seen as an effective tool in the fight with alcoholism and anti-social attitudes. Six years later Jerzy Rudzki (a television analyst) took notice of serious social role of the medium: “Television is the medium of great influence on the youth’s behavior, it stops (by stigmatizing) the hooligans, and «thoughtless laziness»”. The same attitude to television was typical to the popular discourse: in the educational article (the 70.), Pola Wert described some advantages of television and underlined the fact that television „contributed to the democratization of culture, integration of the villages with the cities…”. Unfortunately, both authors did not provide any interpretation nor explanation of the mentioned social processes. In fact, observations and comments provided by sociologist or television analysts had a lot in common with the propaganda slogans.

Viewers and professionals shared also opinion that television „intensifies the interest of the wide world” , „has an effect on the intellectual level of the youth, as well the broadening the field of interest and knowledge”. But since the 50. concept of the “world” had been changed and the concept of openness to the world differs through years. Let me remind you that cultural life in PPR was not the homogeneous construct (PPR was not the “monolith” neither ideologically nor politically or culturally). Not only during the 50. television treated as „window to the world”, which description became a popular cliché: even to the late 80. that phrase had been used in the context of the popularization of satellite television in Europe and the exchange of programmes among many different television channels from all over the world. Undoubtedly, a great deal of travelogue or tourist programmes were presented in the first 5 years of the television development in Poland.

Polish television during the pioneer period and the 60. could be seen as a medium which eagerly followed the main ethical principles of socialism: innovatory activity, secular worldview, egalitarianism and humanism. Television, by definition, was an example of „innovatory activity” and it was also able to cultivate the rest of the most important socialist values under the strict control of the Party’ representatives. The educational aspect of new medium was discussed and stressed as dominant feature of TV in some academic studies and popular articles. Television was treated as a tool to „polish cultural profile” of less-educated and not difficult to please part of society.

Academic studies and popular texts show two contradictory ideas (and goals) typical for the new medium: availability for mass audience and necessity of fulfilling needs of more sophisticated viewers. To satisfy the latter group the new medium prepared something special: in the first period of television development in Poland the theatre of television became one of the most amazing phenomena created by the Polish public television. Despite some obstacles (e.g. censorship did not recommend some dramas to be broadcast, and the technical problems often distorted live transmissions), the show was always produced on the best professional and artistic level. Ambitious performances were based on classical dramas from Polish and world’s literary heritage (Sheakspeare, Molier, Słowacki, Wyspiański). The logo of Polish TV Theatre quickly became the sign of the best quality and good taste.

The Golden Age of Polish television – the 60.

Polish society survived the most horrific period of repressions and terror of the 50.; the new government established a new and soften socio-political order. So, at the beginning of the 60., political emotions of the society were successfully pacified and the prospects for the future were rather clear: Poland was for good enclosed in the communist block, which, according to propaganda, is “the best political system in the world”, “the last stage of social development” and unchanged. Now, instead of terror and repressions, a new government introduced another strategy of manipulation – bribery. The Party tried to bribe the nation by the prospects of welfare. The Party’ activists propagated – through different means of communication – the “revelation” of the economical development and social progress, so these efforts managed to create the optimistic image of Poland and one could think of PPR as of the “economical miracle” (late 60. and mid 70.). These manipulation, following the rule that nothing than the greatness of a country can stand for self-esteem of a nation, had been done in the name of political peace in the country.

Despite the diversity of the character of communist Poland during different decades, television matters were regulated by the law. The special act on the Radio-Television Committee was introduced on December 2^nd, 1960. It clarified the social role of the new medium: television development should lead to the mass reception of the program (point no 1). The program should be constructed from “the informational, political, musical, literary and educational units” (point no 2).

The mission of public television in Poland during communist era was different from the analogical missions of televisions in the Western world. Firstly, the main role of Polish television was the ideological one that means serving as a tool for the communist government and the Party. For instance, in 1960 the magazine „Peryskop” (“The Periscope”) was launched, which used to deliver news from all over the world and, according to the Party’ directions, the news was subordinated to very special socialist „political correctness” (it means the black and white vision of the world, in which the Western world was treated as the enemy and the hostile environment, following the conduct typical to socialist propaganda motifs during the cold war)⁴.

Another function of television was an educational one, which included providing the „window” to the world. So, this part of mission was fulfilled by documentaries on the other countries and some studio discussion such as the studio discussion “Kawiarenka pod Globusem” ( “Globe Café”), “Klub Sześciu Kontynentów” („Six Continents Club”), Latający Holender” (“Flying Dutchman”). The basic function of these programmes was not educational, but merely propaganda’s: reports from all over the world should convince the nation of the attractiveness of socialist system and socialist countries. Although in distant and exotic countries we can find the miracles of architecture and cultural treasures, nowadays (according to communist propaganda), the Western world presents itself as the repulsive, hostile and cruel environment for ordinary people (and, of course, the paradise for the representatives of the wealthiest sectors in social structure). Special programmes of this type were prepared in 1968, which was very dramatic year in Poland and in the whole socialist block. 5 editions of documentaries presented the connections between the Radio Free Europe and the CIA as well as the “radical” organizations from West Germany. Summarizing this motif, every type of TV show could be good enough to propagate the new (socialist / communist) ideology, sometimes this popularization was done in an extremely “clumsy” way⁵. Needless to say that Eastern Europe and its production dominated the foreign programming presented by Polish television (among the televising movies the lead position belonged to Russian productions).

Television in Poland under communist regime created its own stars, I mean very popular presenters and newsreaders etc. Among stars and great personalities, greater than the regime and its political obstacles, was for instance talented artist Professor Dr Wiktor Zin. He guided extremely popular educational program Piórkiem i węglem (With quill and charcoal). During the show professor Zin was able to draw a picture of some architectural object (or the series of pictures) and simultaneously he was telling the stories on history of art connected to the discussed place or style in art. Another unconventional television personality was Michał Sumiński, the lead person in educational program Zwierzyniec (Bestiarium) on wildlife in Poland. Sumiński, a great story-teller with a lot of knowledge on animal life and the forest gained attention of the whole audience. Usually the program was ended with one episode from Hanna Barbera series, so we can watched “American” cartoons (The Adventures of Hucklebbery Finn, The Yogi Bear Show, The Magilla Gorilla Show etc.). Referring to programming for kids, during “the Golden Age” of Polish television the audience could follow the adventures of heroes of Polish popular cartoons such as Bolek i Lolek [Bolek and Lolek], Koziołek Matołek [Matołek, a Little Silly Goat], Miś Usztek [Uszatek Teddy Bear] etc. These animations were famous also abroad, even now they can gain attention of international market.

Some television stars appeared in such an unique programmes as “Kabaret Starszych Panów” (Old Gentelmen Cabaret), the entertainment series located on the highest level of popular culture. Sophisticated formula (far from socialist aesthetic), full of wonderful poetical and humorous texts, managed to create the nationwide admired phenomenon. The best level of art had been still the task of Polish Television Theatre; directors precisely choose the interesting dramas and great actors from the best Polish scenes. For instance, only in 1967 among performances we can find Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky, Right You Are (If You Think You Are) by Luigi Pirandello, On ne badine pas avec l’amour by Alfred de Musset, Storm by Shakespeare, Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, Sophokles’ Oedipus Tyrannos, Le Cid by Corneille. Some recorded performances from this period are vivid and fascinating even today; they became “classical” in our television history and they are broadcast from time to time⁶.

Entertainment and live transmissions. In Poland under communist the transmissions of songs festivals, such as Festival of Polish Songs in Opole or International Festival in Sopot, Festival of Soldiers’ Songs etc. were famous and eagerly watched. Very popular were also sport transmission: so called the “race of peace” (the bicycle international race: Warsaw, Prague, Berlin) evoked a lot of positive emotions among viewers, also transmission of Olympic games and the transmissions of international athletic competitions were televised. The female part of audience was especially fond of the competitions of figure skating.

In this context, therefore, “popular” could mean the decline of taste and artistic ambitions. Even entertainment programmes were expected to fulfill the serious tasks, more complex than the pure joy and relax. The content of entertainment programming should be ambitious, intelligent, spurious according to wishes of the TV audience. For instance, the December 1968 issue of „Biuletyn Telewizyjny” [“TV Bulletin”] published such an opinion: „Why does Giełda piosenki (Songs’ Fair) offer only the sexuality? Why do the songs’ lyrics omit the topics such as factory work, peasants toil or nature? Songs tell nothing about the acts of patriotism, or the future of the mankind”. This viewer, identified himself as a „small-town intellectual”, complained on the shallowness the of the program and the attractiveness of this “shallow” contents to the young generation (which is “the hope of our nation”).

At the end of the 60., Polish television was strongly engaged in the politics again, censorship became more restricted. It is worth mentioning that Polish public was used to read between lines and identify the images prepared for “intoxication” with propaganda messages souls and minds of the audience. Polish viewers we were good in solving puzzles, and our creators were resourceful in playing with the censorship (e.g. mentioned series of programmes Kabaret Starszych Panów and some other cabaret shows by STS, Dudek, Tey).

During the Polish People’s Republic television had become the important but not reliable medium. Controlled by the Party media were dependent to the government or the leadership of the Party, and, in fact a lot of programming had been involved in politics and ideology.

Decline of the public television era – the dawn of the new media epoch

Referring to the image of Polish television evolution we can identify at least 3 aspects of development: technological, aesthetical and political (of course, they work together in the process of improving the television as such). The first aspect is rooted in technological progress involved in development of the medium in Poland. In fact there are “natural” phases of television development, I mean technical innovations such as transition from black and white to color television (color transmissions started in 1971, but color television sets became available to ordinary people in late 80. in Poland), the invention and popularization of video recording technology which enabled to change the mode of production from live transmissions to more recorded material (it is also connected with aesthetical aspect, definitely it changes the style of television; in Poland – it occurred in mid 70.); or the possibility of satellite transmission (in Poland – late 80.) etc. Technology of transmission had been constantly improved, although the problems with the receiving television signal occurred not only in the distant part of the country. Frames with the letters “Sorry for the technical problems (with transmission)” („Przepraszamy za usterki”) or “The program will be continued after a while” („Za chwilę dalszy ciąg programu”) had been presented relatively often till the 80.

The second, aesthetical, aspect involves the convention of presentation televised materials, which is sensitive to the changes occurred on the media scene like e.g. the beginning of the Internet or satellite television, when looking for the audience enforced the television to change its formula. Even the introducing the second channel of public television in 1970 (TVP2) caused the changes in the style in the first program (TVP1). Although the major entertainment programming was located in the second program, the most popular entertaining program, Studio 2, born in TVP 2 in 1974 was immediately transferred to TVP1. It is characteristic of Polish public television – its channels do not cooperate but compete.

By the end of the 80., satellite television gained public attention and the audience’s enthusiasm to a new medium and its possibilities was accompanied by anxiety of the Party and the political powers. In 1987 the weekly magazine „Ekran” („Screen”, devoted to presentation of the television program), published a report from the debate on „the invasion of foreign television channels into the Polish sky”. The debate gathered representatives of the government and the journalists from Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany and the USSR. The threats of „satellite imperialism” were discussed, as well as some issues such as Americanization of culture and its negative influence to the cultural identity, pornography, and the strong anti-communist attitudes in some Western movies and TV shows. Although the mentioned threats the participants found the satellite television as the opportunity to strengthen the cooperation between the socialist countries, because „… 42 from 147 communication satellite belong to the USSR”. The debate is the best illustration of our political leaders’ lack of imagination: the satellite television managed to popularize itself extremely quickly, also – before the collapse of the system – a cable television entered the communication scene in Poland.

This aspect of development is based on the changes on the TV market, which means the appearance and widespread of competitive media. This type of changes extorted the transformation of the medium’s character, but the “giant leap” from paleo- to neo-television occurred in Poland in the 90. It means that the public television should react to these changes with the popularization of some new type of programmes: soap operas, reality show – the new formula and this type of evolution is based on the foreign license. More interactive, more entertaining programmes had been added to the everyday routine schedule. The results of competitiveness are twofold: the universalization of the form of programmes, and the specialization of the television offer.

The third, political, aspect of television development in Poland could be analyzed through the perspective of the messages and presented topics. There is a wide measure of agreement among researchers that the crucial moments in the history of Polish TV occurred parallel to the most dramatic political events like the crisis of 1956, the inauguration of Pope John Paul II pontificate in 1978, or the introducing of Martial law in 1981. The last event suppressed the young democracy in Poland and also caused the break in transmission the regular television programming, all the free press had not been published, some journalists were located in the internment camps or even in prisons. For a few months the newsreaders of Dziennik (the official news service during PPR, presented via TVP1) wore military uniforms, but politics restrained the official television for many years.

Among crucial moments for television development the interesting is June 4^th 1989. It is a date of the first (after the World War II) free election in Poland. The election happened a few months before the fall of the Berlin Wall (nota bene this event was not covered nor mentioned by Polish television). In fact, Poland was the pioneer country in the context of the decline of communism in East Europe. So after 1989, the regime soften a little and the transformation had been observed also in the media sphere. The first private television channel, Polonia 1, was launched in 1990 (more precisely – it was the local station from Wroclaw “PTV Echo”, which became a part of Polonia1). The second, and the more dynamic non-public television, Polsat, was launched in 1992. The rest is history…

Since the beginning of the new millennium the television landscape in Poland has been changing constantly. In 2009 there is one active network of public television, consists of 5-6 nationwide stations and local channels transmitted by 16 local TV stations (such as TVP Katowice – the oldest one, TVP Opole, TVP Kraków etc.). Network of public television is based on two main channels: TVP1 and TVP2 (both broadcast general programming) and some supportive channels among which the oldest one is TVP Polonia (started 1992/1993)– designed for Polish audience living abroad, and the newest is TVP HD, started 2007. Four other channels of this network: TVP Info, TVP Kultura, TVP Sport, TVP Historia are more specialized. TVP Info is a typical informative channel which provides dedicated news and current affairs output from all over the country. It regularly broadcasts documentaries prepared by Polish local stations and sometimes foreign, controversial documentaries on the politics and contemporary social issues. One hour in the schedule of this channel is devoted to the local information services. TVP Sport is designed to present the recent sport events.

TVP Kultura (TVP Culture) is the channel with a mission of popularization the world’ cultural heritage. A great deal of programming is taken from Polish national movie and television archives. The channel broadcasts the old documentaries of the classical music concertos, operas; a lot of studio music and popular music as well; alternative art and fine arts are also present in journalism and cultural commercials, video clips, cultural news etc. Circa 80% of its programming covers the European culture (including Polish culture) and its changes during the recent century. American culture is represented in more than 10% of the schedule. And some documentaries are devoted to the world social problems and political issues (only few percent of the whole programming).

The whole programming of TVP Historia (TVP History) is supposed to be connected with “history”. However, the history here is understood as the past till 1989.

Some active commercial networks are thematic, such as movie networks HBO (HBO, HBO2, HBO Comedy, Cinemax and Cinemax2) and Cyfra+ (Canal+, Canal+ Film, Canal+ Blue, Filmbox, Ale Kino, Kino Polska). The most popular network of documentaries is Discovery; of music – MTV (MTV Classic was changed into VH1 Polska, MTV), and Viva. A lot of foreign channels are present in both, cable and satellite, televisions: cartoons in Fox Kids, Cartoon Network; Russian ( RTR Planeta), Italian (Tele 5), Arabian (Al-Rai TV from Kuwait), American (CNN, Universal, FoxNews), French (Arte, Tele5?), German (RTL, ZDF, Pro7 etc.).

Among private television stations (commercial television) there are two main networks of general television: Polsat (Polsat Sport, Polsat Café, Polsat2 etc.) and TVN (TVN, TVN 7, TVN 24, TVN Meteo, TVN Sport); and two main cable networks (with own stations and professional program: Vectra (consists of 47 separate local divisions) and Multimedia Polska (consists of 13 local stations); and a few small networks such as Małopolska Telewizja Kablowa (5 stations) or Toya (4 stations). The commercial channels present tabloid offer with a lot of soap operas, different types of exciting, entertaining programmes; trash TV programming , all kinds of reality show including the licensed programmes such as Big Brother, Idol and so on; they broadcast also some soft-porn movies.

Televising history via Polish channels

As it was stated before, some channels available in Poland are typically historical stations: Polish public channel TVP Historia (TVP History, detailed characteristic of its program offer is presented below), and some foreign channels: Discovery History, ViaSat History, History (previously known as History Channel). The latest and the first mentioned stations are specialized in both – documentaries and feature films. Moreover, history as a background or as a main topic occurred in some channels of Polish public television: TVP, TVP2, TVP Info and TVP Kultura. Commercial channels (Polish and foreign which present some parts of programming in Polish dubbing) sometimes also broadcast television shows on history. Discovery World presents from time to the documentaries on technological problems with historical background, some programmes on the military techniques and great kings and military leaders known from the ancient times (Genghis Khan, Cesar & Cleopatra) to 20^th century (JFK, Churchill). Some channels of HBO network rarely broadcast some documents on history.

Concerning fictional stories with the historical problems or epochs it is easy to identify leading channels: Ale Kino and Kino Polska, a channel with the reference to the unique Polish history. Public television programs (TVP 1) and (TVP 2), and active in Poland religious channels such as Religia TV and Trwam regularly broadcast the movies and documentaries on biblical themes, it means that ancient Israel and ancient Rome are present in those channels rather often. They broadcast also documentaries on the story of church as well as of the other big religions (Buddhism, Confucianism, etc.). Commercial networks (Polsat, TVN, HBO, Canal +) broadcast many movies on historical problems or persons, but it will be convenient to analyze the problem using categories typical to that genre.

Especially interesting in this group is Kino Polska, commercial channel which presents documentaries and movies devoted mainly to the World War II and the newest history of Poland (movies or documentaries on the reality of Polish People’s Republic up to 1989). During the main Polish national holidays such as 3^rd May, 15^th August, 11^th November this channel always all the day broadcasts the special program totally devoted to the particular special occasion (even public TVP Historia does not practice that!). Although Kino Polska specializes in the newest history of Poland, the station rarely presents some documentaries connected with the historical events from the different epochs and fiction television series and movies: based on renaissance: Królowa Bona (Queen Bona), Marysia i Napoleon (Mary and Napoleon) or on 19^th century Rodzina Połanieckich (The Połaniecki Family), Ziemia obiecana (The Promised Land) etc.

Other stations presents sometimes feature films and television series with historical background, just like and Wojna i Pokój (War and Peace) – the Polish channel devoted to Russian cinematography, but history is not the dominant point in its programming.

Televising history: periods and problems

The following analysis is based on TVP Historia, which program of 3 months (April, May and June in 2009) was investigated thoroughly⁷ and this picture of history is accompanied by the “control group” of different stations programming. I choose 9 main Polish television channels (excluding Kino Polska and TVP History), four television stations from public television: TVP 1, TVP 2, TVP Kultura, TVP Polonia; and five commercial television stations: Polsat, TVN, TVN7, Puls⁸, TVP4. I analyzed the program from much more shorter period, I picked only 2 weeks of May 2009 (although the database for the whole month is prepared).

During the analyzing period TVP Historia broadcast 1686 new programming including 1447 purely historical. Total number of programmes, including repeated (rerun) documentaries, episodes of television series is different, is 2885, and the number of purely historical programmes – 2365. The tables below present two sets of data.

During the two analyzed weeks in the 9 channels I identified 168 television shows with the historical background: 37 television shows were presented by TVP1, 36 by Puls, 34 – by TVP Kultura, TVP Polonia – 27 television shows (with a lot of repetitions of programmes); 17 – by TVP 2; 7 – by TVP4; 4 – by Polsat, 3 by both TVN and TVN7. So, the most programmes on history or with historical background was presented by public television channels (115 from 168 transmitted during the mentioned fortnight).

Represenation of periods in the TVP Historia

Let’s consider the content of 3 month period in 2009.

 

Epochs	April 2009	April 2009 including repetitions	May 2009	May2009 including repetitions	June 2009	June 2009 including repetitions
Cross-historical	53	74	83	123	89	123
Antiquity	1	3	6	14	2	9
Medieval	5	27	10	16	16	23
XVI	45	46	21	23	9	10
XVII	9	20	9	14	5	8
XVIII	4	10	14	17	3	3
XIX	3	5	20	31	8	11
XX	304	591	346	578	345	516
Unknown	15	21	15	27	24	28
Irrelevant	23	136	30	128	156	256
Total	462	933	571	967	653	985

 

20th century	April 2009	April 2009 including repetitions	May 2009	May2009 including repetitions	June 2009	June 2009 including repetitions
XX – the first half	108	215	179	274	171	223
XX – WW2	60	137	61	114	45	72
XX – PPR	104	180	105	159	118	200
XX – After 1989	32	59	19	31	11	21
Total	304	591	346	578	345	516

Analyzing the gathered data from TVP History it is clear that the most popular period is the 20^th century. Only in April 2009: 20^th century was the topic of 304 programmes, other epochs: 120, in 462 total number of television shows. It means that 20^th century matters constituted 65,8% of the program during one month. The first half of the 20^th century was the most popular period inside the results. What’s interesting – Polish People’s Republic is more popular topic (34,2%) than World War II (19,7%). The same tendency is observed in the programming of May and June.

The next, quite large, group of programmes was classified as “cross-historical”, it means that the television show (documentary, feature film or television series) starts in one particular year (or epoch) and tries to trace the problem or family story through the next 300 or 500 years (e.g. biographical television series such as Tudor or documentaries showing the history of Christianity or the military inventories). This group of television units constitutes 11,5% of the TVP Historia programming in April 2009, and 13,3% of the offer during the analyzing three months.

The popularity of the other epochs was not so clear in the programming during the mention period: 16^th and 17^th centuries were the next group of interesting periods in April 2009 television shows, 18^th and 19^th centuries were popular in May 2009.

Slightly different panorama of history is obtained from the analysis of the 9 popular Polish stations. Similarly, 78 of total 168 programmes were connected with the newest history; it means that the 20^th century’ matters constituted 46% of these programmes. And among the 20^th century’ interests – World War 2 is the subject of 20,5% of different TV shows, and 32% were devoted to Polish People’s Republic (proportions of representations of the periods are comparable here). The rest of units describes different parts of the century such as World War 1, the Korean war (the 50.) and the other decades of the century.

Fantastic history⁹ was the background of 25 television shows (14,8%), and this point makes the biggest difference between the offer of TVP Historia and others analyzed channels. 21 programmes were located in 19^th century (12,5%); 16 programmes were connected with the period 15^th -18^th centuries (9,5%), only 3 programmes were talking on the medieval (1,8%); and 12 were cross-historical television shows (7,1%).

Representation of problems

Let’s begin with the topics presented in analyzed programming of 9 chosen channels: in documentaries the most popular subjects are: war, and military action, history of religion and popular culture¹⁰. In the feature movies and television series dominated the customs and the biographical data (Tudors, Marco Polo, etc). It is worth mentioning that war was the background for comedy (M.A.S.H.), and although battles are the main building blocks of war stories, espionage and sensation in the war circumstances (Stawka większa niż życie, AKA More than Life at Stake), crimes committed during the war (Foyle’s War series¹¹) and military actions and propaganda (Czterej pancerni i pies, AKA Four Men and a Dog – in a Tank) are typical themes of these movies. It was fascinating that only one unit in the programming of 9 TV channels was linked to the national holiday, I mean the live transmission of official celebration of 3^rd of May, the day of constitution (the same transmission was broadcast by TVP1 and TVP Polonia). During the news some information had occurred, even the data on the 2^nd of May as a day devoted to our national flag.

Analysis of TVP Historia programming is presented below. I decided to divide the main fields of interests into some categories. Distinction between 5 main fields of interest:

• Political matters (main events, biographies of the most important kings and people of power);

• Military history (mostly battles and armor, also technological improvements);

• Cultural history: (everyday life, religion, the story of art etc.)

• History of technology and science.

• History of society (social problems, urban and rural areas etc.).

TVP Historia, representation of problems.

Identification of topics was made in two columns: leading subject, the most important characteristic of the given program, and the background topic, it means the topic which provides supporting information about the leading subject, and helps to identify the whole story. E.g. in the documentary film Dzieje Polaków. Panowie na Zamościu (The Story of Poles. Lords of Zamość) the leading subject is the story of a noble family which used to reign the city of Zamość, so it is identified as “society”, but supporting material is devoted to the story of the city itself (including the history of architecture and art), and that background topic is identified as “culture”. Another example: studio discussion Kontrowersje: W służbie komunizmowi (Controversies: In service with communism) firstly deals with the problem of organization and goals of SB (Służba Bezpieczeństwa: Security Services) and shameful cooperation with the communist special forces, so the leading subject is identified as “politics” and the background topic as “society”; etc.

	April 2009 Leading subject	April 2009 background topic	May 2009 Leading Subject	May2009 background topic	June 2009 Leading subject	June 2009 background topic
Politics	169	119	193	156	116	133
Military	93	79	109	205	69	51
Culture	333	75	411	250	234	177
Technology and Science	9	8	20	8	49	29
Society	127	281	12	188	254	192
Entertainment	7	39	5	51	3	35
Various topics	32	20	22	16	56	3

 

	April 2009 Leading subject	May 2009 Leading subject	June 2009 Leading Subject
Biography	195	180	159
Events	109	107	105
Problem	319	362	452
Phenomenon	108	156	131

The data gathered in the first table shows that the most popular leading subject is culture. In April and May programming it was dominated topic, and in June programming it followed the interest in society. Politics forms the next vast group of problems, and military matters the last from the largest sections. And presentation of a given problem, such as the genesis of military conflict or revolution, the social results of a given military action or political regulation, is the most popular frame of presentation the historical matters. Biography is also good method of presentation historical events and problems, and the next frame is analysis of phenomenon like social or cultural movements etc.

Typical forms of historical programmes

The common day on air of TV Historia is very predictable. The whole programming is pure broadcast, without neither a presenter nor host in the studio. Transmission starts at 7.00 or 8.00 as usual without any special announcements. After the ending of any given part of programming commercial break is introduced in which among typical commercials appear short clips with the excerpts of programming and some comments (voice off) on the content which refer to the main problems discussed or main story told during the particular position of the programming. At the end of the day the programming for the next day is presented (only plates with the schedule accompanied by the peaceful music in the background).

TVP Historia presents the great number of documentaries – 45% of programming during the mentioned 3 months, including also so called drama documentaries based on archival materials (especially on documentaries)¹². Usually archival materials consists of short documentaries, parts of newsreel, sometimes also of photographs and copies of some documents such as acts of law, memoirs, even of the identity cards. These materials are of historical and sentimental value. Referring to given months, documentary always constitutes almost a half of the program: in April – 53,5 %, in May – 46%, in June – 38,9% (during this month TVP Historia used a lot of reports, 14, 2% because of the weekend presentations of chosen regions of Poland). Some documentary cycles from the analyzed months: Zamki kresowe Rzeczypospolitej (Castles of the Polish eastern frontierc – on the Polish past at the wildest, peripheral territories of the Second Republic); Madonny polskie (Polish Madonnas – on the Virgin Mary cult in Poland) and single programmes: Goci z Kotliny Hrubieszowskiej (Goths from the Hrubieszów Valley – on the traces of Goths culture in Poland), Monte Cassino (on the one of the most tragic and bloodiest battles of WW2), Czas wielkiej próby (Time of a great challenge – on the imprisonment of a priest, Franciszek Majdajski, in a concentration camp in Dachau).

Let us describe some popular programmes. Worth attention documentary series is Sensacje XX wieku (Sensations of the 20th century). Although only 16 episodes of the series were broadcast via TV Historia during the analyzed period (with repetitions – the different episodes of programme were 29 times on air ) it is constantly the part of the Polish public television programming. A lot of them were broadcast by TVP1 and TVP Polonia and this documentary series had been released on DVD this year. A „godfather” of Sensacje XX wieku is Bogusław Wołoszański, a journalist and an author of the books on the history, especially the history of WW2. His books are well documented but provocative, written in sensational style; so the the same is the style of the whole documentary series. Even serious topics are presented in tabloid manner. Among typical topics we can find Operacja Barbarossa (Operation Barbarossa), Operacja Zeppelin (Operation Zeppelin), Sprawa Admirała Canarisa (The Case of Admiral Canaris), Bomba Hitlera (The Hitler’s Bomb), Jak zabić Fidela? (How to kill Fidel [Castro]?), Zabójstwo Roberta Kennedy’ego (The Killing of Robert Kennedy), Czerwony baron (Red Baron), Berlin ’45 etc.

The formula of these programmes is simple and effective. The presentation of the subject started with archival footage and the voice off tells the basic facts and the mysterious events or secret documents behind the official version of the story. After this short introduction, the author and presenter (Bogusław Wołoszański) appears and continue the story on the visual background of archival newsreel, documentary or photos. Sometimes the figure of the author is hidden but some parts of the picture are exposed or underline. Also reconstruction of some events is popular form of telling the alternative or official version of the story. Some critics argue that in Sensacje XX wieku objective reality is being replaced by pseudo or staged reality. This kind of programmes is one of factors of distorting the truth in media, but in fact the “truth” is one of the crucial values declared by the author, however motto of the Sensacje XX wieku seems to be “information must be entertaining” because it must be easy to understand. Despite the criticism the described series is still popular.

Different concept of documentary is presented in the series Polskie rody [Poland’s Famous Families] on the history of noble families in Poland. The program is consists of visual reportage from the nests of the families, we can admire their palaces, castles with gardens, sometimes the places are well kept and look gorgeous and in some cases the ruins of castle or devastated palace are presented. The plot is simple here, first we have to learn something about the past of the family, about the achievements and successes. Second part is devoted to the contemporary family members and we can trace their lifestyle. Almost always there are 4 to 5 interviews with the family representatives.

Going back to the main topic, the next form, located on the second position during the analyzed months was magazine (presentation of a problem or phenomenon by the presenter who introduced the topic and tries to comment the photos and the archival films, sometimes the interview with the witnesses or experts is the core of the narration). Magazines constituted 12,3% of programming in April 2009, 17,5% in May and 17,8% in June. Among typical magazines in May 2009 the most popular was Portal (21 editions on news connected with the history: celebrations of some military victories from the past, discussion on some new archeological discoveries, information about the events such as reconstruction of the historical battles, etc.), other magazines, although interesting were presented weekly, e.g. Wideoteka Dorosłego Człowieka (Video Collection for Adults, 5 editions on the popular songs of the 50., 60. and 70.), Drugie dno historii (The Second Bottom of History, 5 editions).

Third form in this classification is television series, mostly fictional stories based on historical events: 9,7% of the monthly schedule in April, 6,8% in May and 5,3% in June (e.g. Tajemnica twierdzy szyfrów [Mistery of the Enigma Fortress, 2008] , Zaklęty dwór [The Enchanted Manor, 1976] , Przedwiośnie [Before the Spring, 2003], Hrabina Cosel [Countess Cosel, 1969]). Discussion in the studio constituted 11% of the programming, and discussion often is the introduction to feature film or documentary. Interesting part here is the quiz show 300% normy (300% of norm), it occupies only 1,5% of the total programming, but the form is untypical (the quiz deals with the reality of PPR).

TVP Historia, April 2009

Form (genre)	Single shows	Shows including repetitions
Documentary (including one „drama documentary”)	247	431
Commentary (including the archival footage)	5	17
Animation13	12	122
Magazine (including the archival footage)	58	98
Studio discussion	48	147
TV series (feature movies, fictional stories)	45 episodes of 5 TV series	54 episodes of 5 TV series
Quiz show	13	13
Report	26	62
Feature film	6	10
Live transmission / live program	0	0
Educational program	0	0
Unknown	2	3
Total	462	941

TVP Historia, May 2009

Form (genre)	Single shows	Shows including repetitions
Documentary (including one „drama documentary”)	261	392
Commentary (including the archival footage)	25	42
Animation	7	100
Magazine (including the archival footage)	100	119
Studio discussion	72	145
TV series (feature movies, fictional stories)	39 episodes of 9 TV series	71 episodes of 9 TV series
Educational program	9	20
Quiz show	10	10
Report	36	51
Feature film	514	10
Live transmission / live program	2	2
Unknown	6	9
Total	572	971

TVP Historia, June 2009

Form (genre)	Single shows	Including repetitions
Documentary (including one „drama documentary”)	256	367
Commentary (including the archival footage)	21	37
Animation	34	99
Magazine (including the archival footage)	117	133
Studio discussion	42	74
TV series (feature movies, fiction)	35 episodes of 7 TV series	68 episodes of 7 TV series
Quiz show	2	2
Report	109	143
Feature film	4	9
Studio live	28	28
Educational program	6	16
Live transmission / live program	0	0
Unknown	5	10
Total	659	986

Referring to forms of programmes typical for 9 analyzed channels, the most popular was feature film (49 movies were broadcast during the first half of May 2009). Documentary is also an important element in this picture: 40 documentaries (some of them were presented 2 or 3 times). These stations broadcast also 32 episodes of different TV series (feature movies) with historical background: Polish series Janosik, Rodzina Połanieckich (The Połaniecki Family), Stawka większa niż życie (AKA More than Life at Stake), Przygody Pana Michała (The Adventures of Sir Michał),Czterej pancerni i pies (AKA Four Tank Men and a Dog); all of them were produced during the Polish Peoples Republic period, 3 last titles were produced during the Golden Age of Polish TV. Among foreign television series there were episodes of: Foyle’s War, Zorro, M.A.S.H., The Tudors, Merlin, Bleak House; and, surprisingly, the animation on the bases of “fantastic prehistory”: The Flintstones (16 episodes). What is more, 11 units of quiz show (mentioned 300% of norm) were transmitted by TVP1 and TV Polonia. 4 episodes of educational program Piórkiem i węglem (With quill and charcoal) were broadcast by TVP Polonia. Live transmission from the official ceremony of 3^rd May, presented by two public TV stations (TVP1 and TV Polonia). Among the other forms I identified 4 reports on history, and 1 drama Henryk VI na łowach (Henry VI hunting by Bogusławski, produced in 1981 and presented 2 times by TVP Polonia). Cabaret performance probably seems strange in this classification: TVP2 broadcast 2 times the show „Historia Polski wg Kabaretu Moralnego Niepokoju” (History of Poland according to the Moral Turmoil Cabaret), an ironic view of Polish history.

Among the documentaries one formula seems to be unique: broadcast by public television channels (TVP1, TVP Polonia, TVP Info and TVP History): Był taki dzień… Kartka z kalendarza (On this day happened…A Card from Calendar ) . One episode covers one day, brief information on the main events of a given day and some stills from the documentaries and archival photographs are presented.

Production

TVP Historia production of shows during 3 months in 2009

Production	April 2009	April (including repetitions)	May 2009	May (including repetitions)	June 2009	June (including repetitions)
Poland	385	833	510	881	611	929
Great Britain	21	36	30	48	15	23
Italy	46	46	23	29	6	6
USA	0	0	1	1	1	1
Polish-Czech	1	2	0	0	0	0
Polish-Italian	2	9	0	0	0	0
Belgium-Polish-German	0	0	0	0	24	24
Unknown	7	15	8	12	2	3
Total	462	941	572	971	659	986

In both cases – the TVP Historia and 9 others Polish television channels – national production dominated in the programming. TV Historia rather rarely broadcasts a documentary or the movie from the other countries. Italy and Great Britain provide some shows to this channel (e.g. documentary series Churchill, GB, 2003 or The Treasures of Toscania, Italy, 2003). Production in the 9 stations is also dominated by Polish programmes (70 of 168), however, in the case of the feature movies the proportion is different: 7 Polish movies “against” 36 foreign films. In the 9 analyzed channels more American programmes appeared: 47 television shows came from the USA (8 from Great Britain, 1from Japan, 1 from Germany and the others were co-produced by different countries such as Ireland, France, Australia, Canada, Hungary, Netherlands, Japan, GB, USA etc.)

Foreign versus national history

TVP Historia – location, three months of 2009

Location Place	April 2009	April (including repetitions)	May 2009	May (including repetitions)	June 2009	June (including repetitions)
Poland	259	479	362	557	494	689
Europe	149	240	100+8 (Russia)	161 +18 (Russia)	50+ 1 (Russia)	82+2 (Russia)
USSR	9	29	3	3	6	7
The world	7	13	59	81	47	68
Africa	2	3	1	1	3	3
Asia	12	26	3	7	2	4
Near East	0	0	3	5	2	2
USA	0	0	3	5	5+ 1 (Canada)	9+2 (Canada)
Latin America	5	20	1	2	6+ 2 (Mexico)	12+ 2 (Mexico)
Irrelevant	12	122	7	100	34	99
Unknown	7	9	22	31	8	9
Total	462	941	572	971	659	986

One last issue deserves a footnote – representation of location of the stories. Foreign history is not so popular in TVP Historia as the history of Poland. What is more, the narratives focused on Europe quite often link the leading subject to Polish matters or the representatives of Polish nation.

Concerning the place of the narration (or the country or city of reference) in the television shows presented by 9 analyzed Polish channels in the mentioned period: in 68 of 1968 cases it was Poland, in 25 cases – fantastic world. 23 in European countries such as Germany, Hungary, France, Bulgaria, Netherlands and Portugal plus 11 programmes situated in England. 14 television shows were based in the USA, 7 episodes of television series – in Korea, 3 shows – all over the world (the movies Around the World in 80 Days and the feature film on Marco Polo’s journey), 2 in China, 1 in Japan, Argentina, India.

History in the popular memory and television discourse in 20^th century Poland

Analyzing popular historical discourse in Poland after the WW2 it is easy to distinguish two main lines of arguments till 1989: one is an official historical discourse, presented by the government and the Party (and public media), the other one is an alternative version of history presented by the opposition. One can ask who was “the owner” of the truth?

In the first period after the WW2 it was obvious that new political powers would like to confirm and strengthen their prestige and social support, and they tried to prepare special version of Polish history. Although Poland had got the same neighbors, among which there were the old enemies, the new allies appeared. So, post-war reconfiguration of political scene was crucial to the construction of Polish historical discourse. The first, ideological line of it was that of the Party, according to which the concept of history was subordinated to the official propaganda of the Soviet Bloc. Polish policy and propaganda doctrine on the Poland’s past, as developed during the Polish People’s Republic in conjunction with the Soviet specialists was presented in the school textbooks and other official books on history. Thus, in this discourse some facts were omitted or discredited (e.g. the denial of the real achievements of the pre-war Poland, the ideological interpretation of the Noble Democracy era¹⁵, etc.) and other facts and events were purposefully exposed and colorized (e.g. the communist movement of the 19^th century was presented as the very active and extremely massive and popular phenomenon). “History or ideology?” seems to be the most appropriate question referring to the interpretation of historical and contemporary events in Poland. Censorship used to block some production, make decision on distribution of some movies or television programs etc.

Generally speaking, public television during the Polish People’s Republic era support the official Party line, and television programming was almost always very helpful in fulfilling propaganda tasks and purposes. Not the same programmes, but the same judgments were repeated over and over again. Televising history was in these circumstances very delicate matter, thus the televisual version of history had a lot of gaps. One can say that it was more ideology than history on the Polish silver screen till the 1989 changes.

The second line in the historical discourse was the alternative version of history propagated by the pre-war elites, now – the groups of immigrants had formed the Polonia milieu in France and Great Britain. So, from abroad especially prepared materials were sent (s.c. “bibuła”, which in popular language means underground publications), such as textbooks, critical books, essays of forbidden authors, examples of contemporary literature banned in Poland, etc. All these publications and some “living” memories of citizens and stories told in private live shaped the second line of historical discourse with some information on taboo issues such as 17^th September 1939 (the day of the Soviet invasion of Poland on the basis of the secret protocols of Nazi-Soviet Pact) or the Soviet crime in “Katyń”¹⁶, the place of mass murder of Polish officers (c. 1940) located on the territory of the Soviet Union. Among the alternative media it was the radio Free Europe (“Radio Wolna Europa”), but unfortunately, there wasn’t any television channel. It’s worth mentioning that the second, alternative version of past was always supported by the Church¹⁷. Short period of 1980-1981 challenged the official version of historical truth, although the evolution of communism in Europe was still presented in the old style, but in popular media the materials on Katyń and September 17^th 1939 sometimes appeared.

1989 was a tremendous breakdown in the political history, the borders had been opened for other nations and for Polish, and some archives had also been opened and previously taboo stories could be told aloud in public and the official discourse had been changed dramatically. It was also the period of denial for the communist history, people often decided to change the streets’ names (communist “saints” were replaced by the heroes of the independence fight, forgotten heroes from the local history etc.) and some monuments had been fallen down with the great applause of the crowds (these events sometimes were televised). Together with the changes in popular memory, the changes in the cultural production occurred. Now, the new vision of the past was presented and it was dominated by the glory of Piłsudski¹⁸ and his epoch (that is the heroic times of building the new Republic after the era of Partition). Now one can ask “History or mythology?” And this period was rather short, after 3 or 4 years of enthusiasm for the new version of Polish history the nation became self-absorbed due to radical changes in national economy and lifestyle.

The other interesting turn was possible due to the collapse of censorship system. A lot of movies were released after a long time on the shelf; some of them were broadcast by public television. It is impossible to write about all the examples, I’d like to focus on the one important problem – the visualization of the Holocaust. In fact, in Polish media the topic was always present after the WW2; in the late 80. the great debate took place just after the broadcasting of some parts of Shoah (1985, a documentary film by Claude Lanzmann). Some voices argued that Polish were presented here in the wrong light. In fact, the problem of attitudes towards the hiding the Jews is still under the historical and sociological analyses. During the Nazi occupation hiding the Jews meant death sentence, thus the decision of help the Jews was so hard to some people. The story which pictures the spectrum of Polish attitudes was told in the movie Długa noc (The Long Night, directed by Janusz Nasfeter) produced in 1967 and released in 1989; now the movie is present in the programming of Kino Polska and broadcasts from time to time.

Since 1989 Polish public television had been trying to fulfill the cognitive needs of the audience as well as the tension release needs. Although the mission of public television is focused on contradictory tasks such as universality (the programming should be appropriate and attractive to as large audience as possible) and the best quality of programmes, still it is design to popularize Polish tradition and culture. Taking into account the new media scene with a lot of competitors, sometimes the need for escape from reality and diversion dominates in programming the other needs.

To sum up, it is hard to draw the panorama of historiography and its changes in the short essay. I tried only to emphasize some main problems, however the picture is incomplete. Politics was the main factor in the process of changes on the cultural scene. Even nowadays in conceptualization of history in public discourse in Poland there are still some taboo issues and gaps, some of them are connected with WW2. During the WW2 Polish were mostly victims of German and Soviet aggression, but some episodes from the occupation and warfare were not bright and noble; just the opposite – they are shameful events such as the murder of Jews in Jedwabne (1945)¹⁹, or painful events such as the mass expulsion of Polish from the new Soviet Union’s territory (1945-1946)²⁰, etc. These events are still the subjects of historical investigations, the truth is still hidden in archives and material evidence. Television – public and private – has been accompanying the changes in the conceptualization of the Polish and international past, even mentioned hard topics occurred from time to time in the programming, mostly as the material for discussion not the regular cycles of programmes or fulltime documentaries. Still there is a great need for the concept of History and the truth and for the appropriate picture of past in Polish television.

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